The Protestant reformation and emergence of the free churches

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The Amish were a split from the Mennonites

The Protestant reformation and emergence of the free churches:

During the Protestant Reformation in 16th century Europe, John Calvin, Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli broke from the Roman Catholic Church to form separate Christian faith groups. They promoted the concepts of:

Salvation by the grace of God, rather than through church sacraments.

Greater individual freedom of belief.

The priesthood of all believers; no priest or other intermediary was needed between believers and God.

Close integration of church and state.

Reliance on the Bible alone, with little attention paid to church tradition.

In what has been called "the radical reformation", some additional religious reformers took these beliefs to a logical conclusion; they preached that the believers should form "free churches" -- quite different from the highly organized state churches which were typical at the time. They separated themselves from all secular activities, including the state, and formed independent, informal, religious groups. These were much like the Christian congregations in very early Christianity.

A small group of Swiss Christians, led by Conrad Grebel and Fexix Manz formed a study group intending to recommend changes to the state Protestant church. Their reforms were rejected both by Zwingli, the church head, and by the Zurich City Council. In 1525 CE, they formed the first Swiss Brethren congregation in Switzerland. They baptized each other into membership in their "believers church" -- a crime for which some were banished; others were executed by drowning or burning at the stake. At the time, the Swiss state church was no more tolerant of what they regarded as heresy as was the Roman Catholic Church. Religious toleration developed later in Europe. A key belief of the Brethren was that only adults should be baptized. The normal practice at the time was to baptize newborns and infants. The name "Anabaptist," which meant re-baptizer, was first used as a nickname to describe this and similar groups. The name stuck.

The Anabaptists promoted the concept of church as a self-governing , loose association of adults, not including children. Worship services held in homes rather than at in a church building.

The Anabaptist leaders met in secret during 1527 in Schleitheim on the Swiss-German border. They developed what was originally called a declaration of "Brotherly Union" and is now referred to as the "Schleitheim Articles." It consists of seven articles:

"Believers baptism" was only performed during adulthood, after repentance and a confession of faith. They practiced antipedobaptism -- opposition to the baptism of infants. They believe that a child does not have the knowledge of good and evil. Thus, they cannot sin and would not benefit from baptism.

Members who slipped and fell into error were to be warned twice in private. If they persisted, the would be warned publicly in front of the congregation and banned from the group.

Only fellow believers who were baptized as adults were allowed to attend the Lord's Supper.

They pledged to separate themselves from the evil in the world. They were pacifists and pledged to reject violence.

The leaders in the church, called shepherds, were to be of good character, competent to preach to the congregation.

They advocated church-state separation. They generally withdrew from the world, which they regarded as a corrupting influence. They would not hold public office or engage in civic affairs.

Members were not to give oaths. Their word is to be sufficient.

These principles remain the basic guidelines used by the Swiss Brethren and Amish to this day.

Some radical Anabaptists who expected an imminent end of the world attempted to create a theocracy in Münster, Germany by force in 1534. Many governments viewed all Anabaptists as a potentially serious danger to the social order. The groups suffered extreme persecution. Many of their leaders were rounded up and executed. Programs of genocide were organized by various governments, by Protestant groups under Luther and Calvin, and by the Roman Catholic church. Some city-states employed "Anabaptist hunters" who were paid by the head to locate and arrest believers.

Anabaptists grew in number, in spite of the persecution. They became a loosely-organized "lay-oriented, non-liturgical, non-creedal, Bible-oriented church."

The Mennonites:

The Mennonites are named after Menno Simons (~1496-1561 CE), a Dutch Anabaptist leader who had left the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1536. He felt that the Catholic church had lost touch with the Gospel message by concentrating on "...legends, histories, fables, holy days, images, holy water, tapes, palms, confessionals, pilgrimages, masses, matins and vespers...purgatory, vigils and offerings." He emerged as a leader of the Anabaptist movement in Holland, and was able to unify the various diverse groups. Like most Anabaptist groups, Simons taught "rebaptism, pacifism, religious toleration, separation of church and state, opposition to capital punishment, opposition to holding office, and opposition to taking oaths." Finally, in 1577, the country instituted a policy of religious tolerance, and the Anabaptists there were given the freedom to practice their religion without oppression.

In 1632, Simon's followers met at Dordrecht in the Netherlands to formally set down their beliefs in a document called the Dordrecht Confession of Faith. It recorded their beliefs in the Trinity, the incarnation and atonement of Christ, the primacy of the Bible, salvation, adult baptism, etc. The Lord's supper and foot washing were observed as ordinances; they were regarded as symbolic acts, not as church sacraments. Foot washing was based on the Bible passages in which "Jesus did not only institute and command the same, but did also Himself wash the feet of the apostles..."

Enforcing discipline:

Other Christian faith groups at the time imprisoned, executed, or committed genocide against non-conformists. The Mennonites rejected these approaches, using non-violent means -- banning and shunning -- to enforce discipline. Banning involves excommunication: severing the relationship between the member and the group. Shunning, called "Meidung" in German, was less severe. It had three purposes: to encourage the sinner to repent; "to protect the rest of the community from possible contagion, and to maintain the community's reputation." Shunning requires that church members temporarily sever all communication with the sinner, including eating together, until they recant. This practice was based on Paul's writings in:

1 Corinthians 5:11: "....if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator, or covetous, or an idolater, or a railer, or a drunkard, or an extortioner; with such an one no not to eat."

Matthew 18:15-17: "Moreover if thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault between thee and tell him alone...But if he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two more...And if he shall neglect to hear them, then tell it onto the church: but if he neglect to hear the church, let him be unto thee as a heathen man and a publican."

Romans 16:17: "...mark them which cause divisions and offences contrary to the doctrine which ye have learned; and avoid them."

Shunning has generated great difficulties within families, particularly where one spouse is to be shunned by the other spouse and the rest of the family.

The Amish:

The Amish began as a small group of reform-minded Mennonites along the southern Rhine River and in Switzerland. They split from the main movement in 1693. The name of their group comes from their founder: Jacob Amman (~1664 -1720). He was an obscure reformer about whom little is known. He felt that the Mennonites had drifted away from their original beliefs and practices. He wanted them to return to a stricter observance of the writings of Simons and on the 1632 Mennonite Dordrecht Confession.

The split with the Mennonites was mainly over:

The frequency of communion: Amman advocated twice a year instead of once. Believers preceded communion with a time of spiritual introspection. Amman felt that this might help the membership to be more diligent in their Christian life if it were performed every six months.

The practice of foot washing, which Amman reintroduced. It had fallen out of use by most Mennonite groups.

The process of shunning of non-conforming members. Amman felt that the Mennonites were too lax and had allowed the practice to fall into disuse. He treated shunning very seriously and took it one step further. He required the spouse of a person under the ban to neither sleep nor eat with the sinner, until they had repented and changed their behavior or beliefs. Hans Reist, a leader of the main Mennonite body, argued that Jesus had socialized with known sinners and had kept himself pure; he reasoned that Christians in the late 17th century could do the same without resorting to shunning.

After a few years as a separate organization, Amman and his supporters attempted to reconcile with the main Mennonite movement. This was unsuccessful. Since then, the two groups have been separate. However, they generally retain close ties and often cooperate on joint projects.

Starting in the early 18th century, many of the Amish migrated to the U.S. Most of the members who remained in Europe rejoined the Mennonites. Few Amish congregations existed by 1900. In 1937, the last Amish congregation -- in Ixheim, Germany -- merged with their local Mennonite group and became the Zweibrücken Mennonite Church. The Amish no longer existed in Europe as a organized group.

The Amish and Mennonites have retained similar beliefs to this day. They differ mainly in some practices.

The Amish from around 1700 until today.

Migration from Europe:

In 1681, William Penn, an English Quaker, received ownership of the land that would eventually become the state of Pennsylvania. He decided to try a "holy experiment:" to establish a colony that would allow religious toleration. This was a relatively novel concept at the time. Amish, Quakers, Mennonites, Moravians, Schwenkfelders and others in Europe responded to the opportunity by moving to the area.

The Amish movement was founded in Europe during 1693. High taxes, high rents, inflation, wars and rumors of wars, the military draft, and religious persecution encouraged believers to leave Europe. "In many places, both Catholics and Protestants -- if they were minority members of their home territories -- often felt unwelcome." Accurate records of the first emigrations to the New World were not kept. The first Amish immigrants for whom records are available -- the Detweiler and Sieber families settled in Berks County, PA in 1736. The bulk of the this first wave of immigration had ceased by 1770.

The Amish initially settled in three areas of Pennsylvania:

Eight settlements in what are now Berks, Chester, Lancaster and Lebanon counties, to the west of Philadelphia One settlement in Mifflin county in the center of Pennsylvania. Three settlements in Somerset county in south-west Pennsylvania.

Back in Europe, some Amish families moved to the Hesse region of Germany, Bavaria, Poland and Russia. None of the settlements were ultimately successful, as there is no organized Amish presence in Europe at this time. The last Amish congregation was in Ixheim, Germany. In 1937, it merged with their local Mennonite group.

Surviving external conflicts during the 18th century:

During the first century of Amish settlement in the American colonies, believers survived a number of external conflicts:

Settlements in Pennsylvania were attacked during the French and Indian Wars during the mid 18th century.

Starting in the mid 18th century, a religious revival spread across the American colonies. The Amish were targeted by Baptist, Methodist, United Brethren. and German Baptist Brethren itinerant pastors and evangelists. The "revivalists" took a heavy toll on the Amish membership. The War of Independence put a heavy strain on the Amish principle of pacifism and neutrality. The colonies were divided into Patriots and "Tories" -- those loyal to Britain. The Amish attempted to remain non-violent and neutral, but were attacked by both sides. For some of them, their situation was complicated by oaths of loyalty to Britain that they had taken when they were admitted to the colonies.

Author Steven Nolt estimates that about 500 Amish had migrated to Pennsylvania during the 18th century. Most had large families. However, the attrition rate was so high that by the year 1800, there were fewer than 1,000 Amish in America.

Surviving internal conflicts during the 19th century:

A second wave of immigration from Europe lasted from 1817 to 1860. About 3,000 Amish relocated to the U.S. They were motivated to leave by religious oppression in Europe, financial problems, crop failures, continuing wars, the military draft, and high taxes. Most settled in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, New York, Ohio, and Ontario in Canada. A few went to Pennsylvania.

Immigrants from Europe during the 19th century tended to be more progressive than those who were already established in the U.S. Some newcomers had partly abandoned traditions of Amish life. Deviations included wearing buttons on their coats; owning a piano, dishes with decorations, decorated carriages, and fancy furniture; dressing their children in fancy clothes. Perhaps even more serious, many were more flexible on matters of doctrine and belief.

The church remained united for the first half of the 19th century, in spite of growing friction between liberals and conservatives. In 1849, a conservative congregation in Mifflin County, PA, broke with most of the rest of the Amish church for reasons which are not clear.

A series of Diener-Versammlungens -- national meetings for Amish leaders were held in various settlements in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, and Pennsylvania between 1862 and 1878. The intent was to strengthen church life and commitment. They were attended by a few dozen leaders and up to 1,500 lay persons. These meetings settled some important doctrines:

Mennonites who wanted to join the Amish church would have to undergo a second baptism. Amish who joined another religion or Christian denomination were to be excommunicated and shunned. Photography, joining a state militia, and belonging to secret societies were banned.

Unfortunately, in spite of initial optimism that the meetings would bring harmony, the end result was to emphasize the differences between the liberal and conservative factions within the Amish church. Thus, the meetings actually increased internal tensions. When separation came, it was not a single dramatic event. Rather, it was spread over decades as individual families and congregations gradually sorted themselves out into the traditionalist and change-minded camps. The latter wanted change but could not reach a consensus on the details. By 1880, there were four Amish groups: one conservative and four liberal:

The conservative wing called themselves the Old Order Amish. They opted out of attending the later Diener-Versammlungens, and continued to follow the historical Amish beliefs and practices. They constituted only about one third of the Amish membership, and numbered only about 5,000 by the end of the 19th century. The liberals became the Amish Mennonites. Most congregations merged with the "Old Mennonites" by 1930, although some formed the Conservative Amish Mennonite Conference in 1910 and the Ontario Amish Mennonite Conference in 1925.

The Egly Amish split away from the Amish Mennonites between 1865 and 1866. They were named after their founder, Bishop Henry Egly from Indiana. He had an intense personal experience of salvation and felt that Amish should only be baptized if they had first undergone a similar incident. The group was renamed the Defenseless Mennonite Church in the mid 1890s, and became a Fundamentalist denomination, the Evangelical Mennonite Church in 1948. The Stuckley Amish broke away in 1871 and 1872. They were named after Bishop Joseph Stuckey of Illinois. He represented a faction within the Old Order Amish church which favored a relaxation of behavioral standards: using buttons, styling their hair, wearing neckties, using an organ in Sunday School, etc. The issue that ultimately caused a break with the Amish Mennonites was a matter of doctrine and discipline. Stuckley had refused to excommunicate a school teacher in his congregation, Joseph Joder, who believed in the concept of universalism. This is the belief that unsaved people would not be tortured in Hell for all eternity. Rather, everyone's eventual destination will be Heaven. The Stuckley Amish lasted until after World War II. They merged with the General Conference Mennonites in 1946. The Sleeping Preachers Amish were a sub-group among the Amish Mennonites. During the late 1870s, in reaction to the rapid liberal shift of the movement, a few preachers developed an unusual method of delivering sermons, called "spirit preaching." They would appear to fall asleep in the early evening, rise a few hours later in a trance and preach "on the themes of repentance, spiritual renewal or the return to simpler lifestyles." They were called "sleeping preachers." The phenomenon was also observed among Native Americans and other Christian groups at this time. John D. Kauffman, one of the leading sleeping preachers, formed an independent congregation in Illinois during 1907. The movement spread. However, the practice of spirit preaching has long since been abandoned. As of 1992, Sleeping Preachers Amish had congregations in Arkansas, Illinois, Missouri, and Wisconsin.

Developments in the 20th century:

1917: World War I: Canada began drafting young men, but gave agricultural releases to Amish youth. These ended in 1918-APR. Most Amish who were subsequently drafted into the armed forces were given indefinite leaves of absence in recognition of their conscientious objector (CO) status. The U.S. entered the war in the spring of 1917, and also started drafting men. The legislation provided for religious conscientious objectors, but there was no formal system for recognizing their status. Amish youth were required to report for duty. Some cooperated by undergoing training; most refused; some were physically and mentally abused in an effort to get them to join the military.

1921: Ohio schools: Many Old Order Amish felt that high school and post-secondary education were a waste of their children's time. " 'Worldly wisdom' which went beyond the practical knowledge of reading, writing and mathematics posed a real threat to the Amish way of life and to church teaching on humility, simplicity, and mutual aid. Spending time in school for nine months a year with teachers who were hostile to Amish beliefs and traditions was not something that Amish parents wanted for their young people."

The state of Ohio passed the Bing Act in 1921 which required all children to attend school until they reached the age of 18. This conflicted with the Amish tradition of terminating their children's education after graduation from grade 8. The Amish compromised by applying for work release permits for their children at age 16.

1927: The Beachy Amish: This group is also referred to as the Beachy Amish Mennonites. Conflict arose among the Old Order Amish in Somerset County, PA. Some members had left the group and affiliated with a nearby Conservative Amish Mennonite congregation which was somewhat more liberal than the Old Order. Members who left had been strictly shunned. A new associate bishop, Moses M. Beachy was ordained in the Old Order. He announced that he would neither excommunicate nor shun Old Order Amish who had become Amish Mennonites. His church's members deviated further from Old Order traditions, by founding Sunday schools, meeting in a church building, wiring their homes for commercial electricity, relaxing dress standards, and buying automobiles. For the next three decades, the movement spread to Indiana, Kansas, Ohio, and Ontario, Canada.

1937: Pennsylvania schools: East Lampeter Township in Lancaster County, PA decided to close ten one-room schools and replace them with a single, centrally located, consolidated school. The Amish objected, and the governor compromised by keeping a single one-room school open for them. However, the state passed a new law that year requiring children to be fifteen years of age before they could obtain a work permit and leave school. This was rolled back to fourteen years after the Amish circulated a petition. In late 1938, Lancaster County Amish opened the first of two parochial schools.

1939: World War II: Canada declared war on Germany in the fall of 1939; the U.S. entered the war two years later. This time, Brethren Mennonite, Quaker and other religious leaders had negotiated a better deal with the government for conscientious objectors. The Canadian Alternative Service Work (ASW) and American Civil Public Service (CPS) programs allowed COs to be assigned to non-military work assignments. Of the 772 Old Order Amish who were drafted, 23 entered the army, 27 chose non-combatant military tasks, and 722 declared themselves COs.

Many Amish refused to use the wartime ration stamps that the government distributed to regulate the purchase of food and other necessities. Their main objection was that the stamps contained images of tanks, planes and other military equipment. They found ways of doing without food and other materials.

1952: Conscientious objectors: The U.S. draft returned in 1948. In 1952, conscientious objectors were required to work for two years in an alternative program, called 1-W. Amish youth were typically employed in cities, where they had almost complete freedom of action outside of work hours. Some became integrated into "The English" (non-Amish) culture and never returned to their families. Others became emotionally troubled by the culture shock of being exposed to non-Amish society.

1955: Social Security: Congress expanded the Social Security program to include all self-employed farmers. Most Amish felt that government social programs of this type violated their traditions. The Amish had always cared for their own people. Many refused to pay into the system. The federal government placed liens on Amish property and sometimes foreclosed and sold several farms in order to collect premiums. In one memorable incident, government agents stopped Valentine Byler in New Wilmington, PA while he was plowing in his fields and took possession of three of his horses for sale. Anger from "The English" forced the government to back down. Later in the year, Congress exempted the Amish from both Medicare and Social Security.

1966: Conscientious objectors: Some Amish leaders found that about half of their drafted young men never returned home. The Beachy Amish tackled this attrition by creating retirement homes in five states, and arranging Amish COs to work there without experiencing culture shock. They also founded mission programs in Europe, Canada and Latin America. Their COs partly staffed their North American offices and warehouses. The Old Order Amish tried a different approach. They organized a National Amish Steering Committee to negotiate alternative arrangements with the government. This was a major departure for the Old Order; their basic organizational unit had always been the individual congregation; never before did they have a national group speaking for them. In 1969, the committee was able to arrange a system of farm deferments for its COs.

1966: The New Order Amish: Doctrinal disputes plagued the Old Order throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Most dealt with:

The policy of shunning Amish who left to join other Amish groups. Some Amish were experiencing what were called spiritual awakenings and personal encounters with God. Some believers rejected their historical belief that one can only hope for salvation in this life, by continuing Amish traditions as long as they lived. A minority suggested that a person can be totally assured of their salvation through a conversion experience. Many of the latter group also advocated the use of mechanized farming equipment and the installation of telephones in homes.

In 1966, about one hundred families withdrew from the Old Order in Lancaster County, PA, and formed two new church congregations which they called "New Order Amish." The schism spread to other states. Some chose the name "Amish Brotherhood." They are generally regarded as a sub-group within the Old Order Amish. 1967: School problems continue: Motivated by a series of conflicts over Amish schooling in many states, Reverend William C. Lindholm, pastor of Grace Lutheran Church in East Tawas, MI, helped organize, and became the first chairperson of, the National Committee for Amish Religious Freedom (NCARF). They launched a lawsuit, Wisconsin v. Yoder, asking that the Amish be exempted from the state's school codes. In 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in NCARF's favor, thus strengthening religious freedom and parental rights for all Americans. The court noted that the lack of high school education among the Amish had not made them an economic burden on the rest of society. The decision allowed the Amish and Old Order Mennonites to either establish their own schools, or withdraw their children from public schools after they graduate from grade 8. This granting of additional religious freedom is not without cost. It generates hardship to those Amish youth and adults who might want to leave their religion behind and join the larger American culture. With no high school or post-secondary education, their economic options are severely limited. 1967: Migration to Latin America: Some Amish considered moving away from North America to avoid problems with the military draft, schooling, the gradual secularization of the dominant culture, etc. Peter and Anna Wagler Stoll of Alymer, ON, Canada moved with several other Old Order and New Order families to Honduras. From an agricultural standpoint, the colony was a success. They were considered wealthy by the surrounding Honduran farmers. However, conflicts within the group between the Old and New order members grew and could not be resolved. In the late 1970s, most returned to North America. The New Order Amish who remained in Honduras affiliated with the Beachy Amish.

Also in 1967, seven Old Order Amish families from Indiana moved to the Chaco region of Paraguay. A group of conservative Mennonites had previously settled there. The group almost doubled in size over the next two years. Again, they were an agricultural success. However, they were unable to form a "spiritually stable congregation." In 1978, most returned to North America; some joined with the local Mennonites; a few formed an independent Amish group. 1967: Canada Pension Plan: This is a program similar to Social Security in the U.S. Revenue Canada officials started raiding Amish bank accounts in Ontario, attempting to collect unpaid premiums. In 1974, the federal government exempted self-employed Amish from the system. Canadian Amish now have Social Insurance Numbers (ironically referred to as S.I.N. numbers), which the government uses to identify its citizens and residents. However, they are in a numerical series that prevents them from receiving any benefits. Recent developments: There have been a number of changes over the last few decades that have significantly impacted Amish culture:

The rising cost of farm land has forced some Amish to take outside jobs while remaining in their community. Some developed home businesses, creating traditional Amish crafts for sale. Others founded commercial enterprises. Tourism has been a mixed blessing. The Amish have lost some of their privacy to the hordes of visiting tourists who are curious about their culture. However, it does bring a lot of revenue to the community.

Current membership:

The main Amish churches currently are, the Old Order Amish, New Order Amish, and Beachy Amish. Other Amish groups exist, like the Sleeping Preacher Amish, and a few independent congregations. However, they are relatively small in numbers.

In 1991:

Old Order Amish congregations: Including the New Order Amish sub-group, they had 898 congregations totaling about 63,000 adult members. Total population, including children was about 135,000. Amish Mennonite congregations:

The Beachy Amish had 112 congregations totaling 7,228 adult members.

The Sleeping Preacher Amish had 9 congregations, and perhaps on the order of 1,200 adult members.

Probably the current total adult membership of all Amish groups would be on the order of 180,000 spread across 22 states. The largest concentration, with about 45,000 members is in Ohio. There are smaller numbers in Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, New York, etc. About 1,500 live in south-eastern Ontario, Canada.

Almost all current members are born and raised in Amish families. Converts from "The English" ( non-Amish) culture are believed to constitute fewer than 10% of the total membership.

Amish Beliefs

Amish beliefs which are shared by Evangelicals:

The Amish are a very conservative Christian faith group, with an Anabaptist tradition. Many of their beliefs are identical to those of many Fundamentalist and other Evangelical churches, including:

1. Adult baptism is done after one makes a commitment to the church.

2. Belief in the Trinity, the virgin birth, incarnation, sinless life, crucifixion, resurrection ascension, and atonement of Jesus Christ.

3. One lives on after death, either eternal rewarded in Heaven or punished in Hell.

Salvation is by grace from God.

3. The Bible's authors were inspired by God. Their writings are inerrant. The Bible is generally to be interpreted literally.

4. Satan exists as a living entity.

Amish beliefs that are not shared by most Evangelicals:

1. Salvation: Essentially all conservative Protestants, including Amish, look upon salvation as an unmerited gift from God. However, Evangelical Christians have traditionally looked upon the salvation experience as an intense emotional event which happens suddenly, as a convert repents of their sin and accepts Jesus as Lord and Savior. The new Christian's subsequent ethical behavior and daily routine are of secondary importance to the experience of being saved. The Amish have always looked upon salvation as being experienced in everyday living. Salvation is "...realized as one's life was transformed day by day into the image of Christ."

2. Knowledge of one's salvation: For Evangelicals and other conservative Protestants, salvation is an unmistakable experience which happens when one trusts Jesus. Amish are different. They don't believe that anyone is guaranteed salvation as a result of a conversion experience, baptism, joining the church, etc. "...they would consider it arrogant or prideful to claim certainty of salvation." The Amish believe that God carefully weighs the individual's total lifetime record of obedience to the church and then decides whether the person's eternal destiny will be the reward of Heaven or the punishment in Hell. As a result, an Amish believer lives their life and dies not knowing if they are saved and will attain Heaven. This lack of certainty has made the Amish church susceptible to raiding from other Christian evangelists at various times in its history.

3. The state: The Amish are enthusiastic supporters of the principle of separation of church and state.

4. Authority: They believe that their church has received the authority from God to interpret his will. "Submission to church is submission to God."

5. Rituals: Evangelicals look upon their two ordinances -- communion and believers' baptism -- as rites that are primarily between an individual and God. To the Amish, "The church itself, as a body of believers, shared in communion as a sign of their unity with Christ and with one another. Baptism in the Amish church symbolized a commitment to both god and fellow believers."

6. The world: They believe in remaining quite separate from the rest of the world, physically and socially. Part of this may be caused by the belief that association with others -- often referred to as "The English" -- may be polluting. Part may be because of the intense persecution experienced by their ancestors as a result of government oppression. Amish homes do not draw power from the electrical grid. They feel that that would excessively connect them to the world.

7. Nonresistance: They reject involvement with the military or warfare. They believe that Amish must never resort to violence or to take up arms in war. However, they do not generally view themselves as pacifists, because this would involve them in political action to promote peace. Their rejection of violence does not extend to the disciplining of their children. The Faith Mission Home in Virginia housed mentally retarded children and adults. They used physical punishment to control the children. It took "...the form of slapping the hand several times or spanking the buttocks a maximum of four strokes with the hand or a 'simple light paddle." Bruises on a young woman led to the state Department of Mental Health and Mental Retardation obtaining an injunction which prohibited the use of force by staff in the Home. The case caused Professor Alvin Esau to comment: "There is of course great irony on this issue, as groups such as the Amish and Hutterites use physical punishment, sometimes excessively, while supposedly believing in nonviolence in human relationships."

8. Local control: They believe that each congregation -- called a "district" -- is to remain autonomous. There is no centralized Amish organization to enforce beliefs and behaviors.

9. Evangelization: Most believe that it is not their role to go out into the larger community and attempt to seek converts among The English. However, some Amish groups have recently become active in evangelization.

10.Customs: The Ordnung is an oral tradition of rules which regulates how the Amish way of life should be conducted. Specific details of the Ordnung differ among various church districts. The rules are generally reviewed biannually and occasionally revised as needed.

11. Sex roles: In common with many conservative Christian faith groups, their family life has a patriarchal structure. Although the roles of women are considered equally important to those of men, they are very unequal in terms of authority. Unmarried women remain under the authority of their father. Wives are submissive to their husbands. Only males are eligible to be become Church officials.

12. Oaths: Their faith forbids the swearing of oaths in courts; they make affirmations of
truth instead.

Practices of the Old Order Amish:

Practices shared by most of the Old Order Amish, the largest Amish group, are listed below. Some smaller Amish groups have adopted practices which are either more progressive or more restrictive.
1.Language: Members usually speak a German dialect called Pennsylvania Dutch (Deutsch). High German is used during worship. They learn English at school.

2. Education: Schools are one-room buildings run by the Amish. Formal education beyond Grade 8 is discouraged, although many youth are given further instruction in their homes after graduation.

3. Appearance: Men follow the laws of the Hebrew Scriptures with regards to beards. They do not grow mustaches, because of the long association of mustaches with the military.

4. Clothing: Men usually dress in a plain, dark colored suit. Women usually wear a plain colored dress with long sleeves, bonnet and apron. Women wear a white prayer covering if married; black if single. Brides' gowns are often blue or purple.

5. Modern conveniences: Vehicles: With very few exceptions, Old Order Amish congregations do not allow the owning or use of automobiles or farm tractors. However, they will ride in cars when needed.
Electrical devices: They do not use electricity, or have radios, TV sets, personal computers, computer games, etc.
Telephones: In-home telephones are not normally allowed. Some families have a phone remote from the house.

6. Government programs: They do not collect Social Security/Canada Pension Plan benefits, unemployment insurance or welfare. They maintain mutual aid funds for members who need help with medical costs, dental bills, etc.

7. Photography: They do not take photographs or allow themselves to be photographed. To do so would be evidence of vanity and pride. Also, it might violate the prohibition in Exodus 20:4, the second of the Ten Commandments: "Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything that...is in the earth..."

8. Marriage: Marriages outside the faith are not allowed. Couples who plan to marry are "published" in late October. They are married in one of their homes during November or early December.

9. Days of Celebration: They celebrate the traditional Christian holy days. They also observe a Fast Day on October 11.

10. Religious services: These are held biweekly on alternate Sundays. One the "in-between" Sundays, members often attend another congregation's service, or visit friends or family. Services consist of singing, two prayers, Bible reading, a short opening sermon, and a main sermon. Each baptized male then offers a comment on the biblical correctness of the sermons.

11. Communion services: These are held twice yearly, in the spring and fall. Before the service, a council meeting is held in which the attendees resolve any disagreements that they have with each other. They also discuss matters regarding proper lifestyle and conduct.

12. Meeting places: Services are usually held in the homes of members. As a rule, they do not build meeting houses or churches. One source speculates that this practice may have been done "...out of frugality, perhaps out of necessity, or perhaps to emphasize that people (and not the building were really the church..."

13. Funerals: These are conducted in the home without a eulogy, flower decorations, or other display. The casket is plain, without adornment. At death, a woman is usually buried in her bridal dress. A simple tombstone is erected after burial.

14. Rumspringa: Some Amish groups practice a tradition called rumspringa ("running around"). Teens aged 16 and older are allowed some freedom in behavior. It is a interval of a few years while they remain living at home, yet are somewhat released from the intense supervision of their parents. Since they have not yet been baptized, they have not committed to follow the extremely strict behavioral restrictions and community rules imposed by the religion. They may date, go out with their friends, visit the outside world, go to parties, drink alcoholic beverages, wear jeans, etc. The intent of rumspringa is to make certain that youth are giving their informed consent if they decide to be baptized. About 80% to 90% decide to remain Amish.

15. Slavery: In the early years of the movement, there are no records of any Amish family owning slaves, even though this was a common practice among "The English" (non-Amish) in Pennsylvania until the late 18th century. However, some families did purchase redemptioners. These were skilled European immigrants who had no money with which to pay for their trip to the New World. They promised to work for a family for a defined number of years in exchange for the cost of their passage.

Conflicts and problems:

1. Behavioral rules: Since arriving in North America, there have occasionally been disputes within the Amish community. Some members wanted to:

Construct churches and hold meetings there rather than in homes. Educate their children beyond the elementary grades. Allow their clothes to include buttons or pockets. Vote or become involved in public life.

2. Theological disputes: There have also been disagreements in beliefs and religious practices:
"Stream" baptism: Baptisms had traditionally been held in individual homes. In the mid-19th century, some Amish wanted to follow the tradition of Jesus who was baptized in the Jordan river. They had candidates kneel in a river while the bishop poured water over their head. After much debate, the church decided to accept both methods as valid. Stream baptism was phased out around 1910.
Universalism: The concept that all persons would be eventually "saved," Nobody would spend eternity being tortured in Hell.
Hell: Whether it exists as a place where people are eternally punished.

3. Education: The Amish's insistence on terminating formal schooling after the 8th grade conflicted with many state's laws which require children to remain in school until their mid-teens. Some Amish avoided this problem by migrating from Pennsylvania to other states, like Missouri, which had more relaxed laws. A ruling by the US Supreme Court in 1972 (Wisconsin v. Yoder) recognized their right to limit education of their children.

4. Accidents: Highway accidents between motor vehicles and Amish black horse and buggies are a concern to many. Horse-drawn vehicles generally travel between five and eight miles an hour. Some Amish are reluctant to mount a slow-moving-vehicle sign on the back of their buggies. In some states, they line the back of their buggies with reflective tape as an alternative to a sign.

5. Polio: There was an outbreak of polio in 1979 among Amish in Pennsylvania, Iowa, Wisconsin Missouri and Canada. The North American population of Amish was essentially unvaccinated against polio at the time. The spread of the disease was halted by an emergency vaccination campaign. This was the last significant outbreak of the disease in the U.S.

6. Genetic diseases: Some Amish groups have a limited gene pool. For example, the Amish in Lancaster County, PA, are descendents of about 200 Swiss citizens who emigrated in the mid 1700s. Because they do not marry outsiders and because few outsiders have joined the order, the "community has been essentially a closed genetic population for more than 12 generations. Thus, intermarriage has brought to the fore certain genetic mutations that were present in the initial genetic pool (as they are in any population), making the Amish host to several inherited disorders." These include dwarfism, mental retardation and a large group of metabolic disorders. One in 200 have glutaric aciduria type I; they are born healthy, but can experience permanent neurological damage when a mild illness strikes.